Epigraphy and Literacy in the Iberian Peninsula:Echoes of the Past, Challenges of the Present
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.36707/palaeohispanica.v25i1.732Keywords:
Alfabetización, Cooperación internacional, Datos, Epigrafía no lapidaria, Hábito epigráfico, Instrumentos de escritura, Península IbéricaAbstract
This article pays homage to the international cooperation and interdisciplinarity that have characterised the first 50 years of the Palaeohispanic congresses. It presents some of the highlights and lessons learnt from working on the epigraphy and writing equipment of the Iberian peninsula in the context of a recent project, LatinNow, which explored Latinization, local languages, and literacies. We acknowledge the gap between ‘historical grand narratives’ and the realities on the ground, and the importance of controlling multiple scales of analysis and appreciating the local voices and communities in recovering ‘regionality’. New projects focused on the Peninsula exploiting so-called ‘épigraphie mineure’ and writing equipment, and the implementation of FAIR principles in our datasets, should assist us in recovering the local communities, complex epigraphic practices, shifting linguistic landscapes, and regional varieties of Latin in more detail. We sound a note of optimism for the future of our shared endeavours over the next fifty years.
References
Aiestaran 2023: M. Aiestaran, J. Gorrochategui y J. Velaza, “La inscripción vascónica de Irulegui (Valle de Aranguren, Navarra)”, Palaeohispanica 23, 2023, 267–293.
Albertos Firmat 1966: M. L. Albertos Firmat, La onomástica personal primitiva de Hispania Tarraconense y Bética, Salamanca 1966.
Albertos Firmat 1983: M. L. Albertos Firmat, “Onomastique personelle indigène de la Péninsule ibérique sous la domination romaine”, ANRW II.29.2, 1983, 853–892.
Alonso 2013: J. Alonso, “Cápsulas de sellos en Hispania romana. Aproximación a una primera clasificación formal”, Sautuola 18, 2013, 213–226.
Alonso, Jerez Linde y Sabio González 2014: J. Alonso, J. M. Jerez Linde y R. Sabio González, “Instrumentos de escritura en Hispania”, en: M. Bustamante Álvarez y D. Bernal Casasola (eds.), Artifices idoneos. Artesanos, talleres y manufacturas en Hispania, Mérida 2014,
169–189.
Alonso, Sabio González y Jerez Linde 2019: J. Alonso, R. Sabio González y J. M. Jerez Linde, “Tinteros de bronce romanos de Augusta Emerita”, Archivo Español de Arqueología 92, 2019, 251–269.
Ballester 2005: X. Ballester, “Lengua ibérica: hacia un debate tipológico”, Palaeohispanica 5, 2005, 361–392.
Beltrán Lloris 2001: F. Beltrán Lloris, “Presentación”, Palaeohispanica 1, 2001, 7–9.
Beltrán Lloris 2004: F. Beltrán Lloris, “De nuevo sobre la tésera Froehner”, Palaeohispanica 4, 2004, 45–65.
Beltrán Lloris 2015: F. Beltrán Lloris, “The ‘Epigraphic Habit’ in the Roman World”, en: C. Bruun y J. Edmondson (eds.), The Oxford Handbook of Roman Epigraphy, Oxford 2015, 131–148.
Beltrán Lloris 2020: F. Beltrán Lloris, “Palaeo-European studies: languages, writings, epigraphic cultures”, en: F. Beltrán Lloris, B. Díaz, M. J. Estarán Tolosa y C. Jordán (eds.), Proceedings of the International Conference “Palaeoeuropean Languages and Epigraphic Cultures.
Challenges and Research Approaches”, Palaeohispanica 20, Zaragoza 2020, 13–25.
Beltrán Lloris et al. 2020: F. Beltrán Lloris, B. Díaz Ariño, C. Jordán y I. Simón Cornago, “Tesseram Conferre. Etruscan, Greek, Latin, and Celtiberian Tesserae Hospitales”, Historia 69.4, 2020, 482–518.
Bodel 2001: J. Bodel, “Epigraphy and the ancient historian”, en: J. Bodel (ed.), Epigraphic Evidence: Ancient History from Inscriptions, London 2001, 1–56.
Bodel, Prag y Roueché 2024: J. Bodel, J. Prag y C. Roueché “Open Scholarship: Epigraphic Corpora in the Digital Age”, en: P. Fröhlich y M. Navarro Cabellero (eds.), L’Épigraphie au XXIe Siècle. Actes du XVIe Congrès International d’Épigraphie Grecque et Latine, Bordeaux,
29 Août-02 Septembre 2022, Bordeaux 2024, 91–117.
Boissinot y Ruiz Darasse 2023: P. Boissinot y C. Ruiz Darasse, “Ensérune: un bilan et nouvelles perspectives de recherches”, Palaeohispanica. Revista sobre lenguas y culturas de la Hispania Antigua 23, 2023, 191–204.
Bruin 2024: J. D. Bruin, “Writing Equipment and Latin Literacy in the Netherlands: An Archaeological Perspective”, en: A. Mullen y A. Willi (eds.), Latinization, Local Languages, and Literacies in the Roman West, Oxford 2024, 321–354.
Coltelloni-Trannoy y Moncunill 2022: M. Coltelloni-Trannoy y N. Moncunill (eds.), La culture de l’écrit en Méditerranée occidentale à travers les pratiques épigraphiques (Gaule, Ibérie, Afrique du Nord), Leuven 2022.
Cooper et al. 2021: A. Cooper, V. Donnelly, C. Green y L. ten Harkel, “Characterful data: Its character and capacities”, en: C. Gosden (ed.), English Landscapes and Identities, Oxford 2021, 29–54.
Cunliffe y Koch 2010: B. Cunliffe y J. T. Koch, Celtic from the West: Alternative Perspectives from Archaeology, Genetics, Language and Literature, Oxford 2010.
De Hoz 2004: J. De Hoz, “The Greek man in the Iberian street: non-colonial Greek identity in Spain and southern France”, en: K. Lomas (ed.), Greek Identity in the Western Mediterranean, Leiden 2004, 411–427.
De Hoz 2008: J. De Hoz, “A Celtic personal name on an Etruscan inscription from Ensérune, previously considered Iberian (MLH B.1.2B)”, en: J. L. García Alonso (ed.), Celtic and Other Languages in Ancient Europe, Salamanca 2008, 17–27.
Eska 2013: J. F. Eska, “Review of Koch, J. T. and Cunliffe, B. W. (eds.), Celtic from the West 2: Rethinking the Bronze Age and the Arrival of Indo-European in Atlantic Europe, Oxford/ Oakville, CT 2013”, BMCR 2013.12.35.
Estarán Tolosa 2016: M. J. Estarán Tolosa, Epigrafía bilingüe del Occidente romano: El latín y las lenguas locales en las inscripciones bilingües y mixtas, Zaragoza 2016.
Estarán Tolosa 2017: M. J. Estarán Tolosa, “La pervivencia de las lenguas paleohispánicas en la epigrafía altoimperial”, Linguarum Varietas 6, 2017, 257–268.
Estarán Tolosa 2019: M. J. Estarán Tolosa, “Deibabor igo deibobor Vissaieigobor. Notas para el estudio de la retención lingüística en la epigrafía religiosa de la Lusitania romana”, en: J. Tomás García y V. Del Prete (eds.), Imágenes, lengua y creencias en Lusitania romana,
Oxford 2019, 54–72.
Estarán Tolosa y Herrera Rando 2024: M. J. Estarán Tolosa y J. Herrera Rando, “The Rise of Latin in Hispania Ulterior, Third Century bce – Second Century ce”, en: A. Mullen y A. Willi (eds.), Latinization, Local Languages, and Literacies in the Roman West, Oxford 2024, 84–114.
Ferrer i Jané, Moncunill Martí y Velaza Frías 2019: J. Ferrer i Jané, N. Moncunill Martí y J. Velaza Frías, “Towards a systematization of Palaeohispanic scripts in Unicode: synthesising multiple transcription hypotheses into two consensus encodings”, Palaeohispanica 15,
2019, 13–55.
Feugère y Willi 2024: M. Feugère y A. Willi, “Literacy in Gaul: The Value of instrumentum”, en: A. Mullen y A. Willi (eds.), Latinization, Local Languages, and Literacies in the Roman West, Oxford 2024, 248–272.
Harris 1989: W. V. Harris, Ancient Literacy, Cambridge (Mass.) 1989.
Houten 2023: P. H. A. Houten, “Cities, Epigraphies and Latinization: a Sociolinguistic View on the Hispaniae”, en: A. Mullen (ed.), Social Factors in the Latinization of the Roman West, Oxford 2023, 51–77.
Houten 2024: P. H. A. Houten, “The Epigraphic Habit in Post-Conquest Hispania: A Geospatial Analysis of the Epigraphic Data and Self-Governing Communities”, en: A. Mullen y A.
Willi (eds.), Latinization, Local Languages, and Literacies in the Roman West, Oxford 2024, 115–150.
De Hoz 2019: J. De Hoz, “Method and methods: Studying Palaeohispanic languages as a discipline”, en: A. J. Sinner y J. Velaza (eds.), Palaeohispanic Languages and Epigraphies, Oxford 2019, 1–24.
Gorrochategui 2022: J. Gorrochategui, “The Relationship between Aquitanian and Basque: Achievements and Challenges of the Comparative Method in a Context of Poor Documentation”, en: T. C. Chacon, N. H. Lee y W. D. L. Silva (eds.), Language Change
and Linguistic Diversity, Edinburgh 2022, 105–129.
Koch y Cunliffe 2013: J. T. Koch y B. W. Cunliffe, Celtic from the West 2: Rethinking the Bronze Age and the Arrival of Indo-European in Atlantic Europe, Oxford/Oakville, CT 2013.
Lejeune 1952: M. Lejeune, “Un texte celtibère inédit”, Zephyrus 3, 1952, 179.
Lejeune 1955: M. Lejeune, Celtibérica, Salamanca 1955.
Lejeune 1985: M. Lejeune, Recueil des inscriptions gauloises I. Textes gallo-grecs, Paris 1985.
Liuzzo 2015: P. M. Liuzzo, “EAGLE and EUROPEANA: Architecture Problems for Aggregation and Harmonization”, Proceedings of the Symposium on Cultural Heritage Markup. Balisage Series on Markup Technologies 16, 2015.
Liuzzo 2018: P. M. Liuzzo, “EAGLE continued: IDEA. The International Digital Epigraphy Association”, en: A. De Santis e I. Rossi (eds.), Crossing Experiences in Digital Epigraphy, Berlin 2018, 216–230.
MacMullen 1982: R. MacMullen, “The epigraphic habit in the Roman Empire”, AJPh 103.3, 1982, 233–246.
Meyer 1990: E. A. Meyer, “Explaining the epigraphic habit in the Roman Empire: the evidence of epitaphs”, JRS 80, 1990, 74–96.
Meyer 2011: E. A. Meyer, “Epigraphy and communication”, en: M. Peachin (ed.), The Oxford Handbook of Social Relations in the Roman World, Oxford 2011, 191–226.
Michelena 1985: L. Michelena, Lengua e historia, Madrid 1985.
Moncunill 2010: N. Moncunill, Els noms personals ibèrics en l’epigrafia antiga de Catalunya, Barcelona 2010.
Moncunill 2019: N. Moncunill, “From Iberians to Romans: The Latinization of Iberian Onomastics through Latin Epigraphic Evidence”, Phoenix 73, 2019, 134–163.
Moncunill 2021: N. Moncunill, “Variación y continuidad en la onomástica personal de los iberos (s. V a. C. – II d. C.)”, Palaeohispanica 21, 2021, 435–465.
Moncunill 2024: N. Moncunill, “Indigenous Languages, Bilingualism, and Literacy in Hispania Citerior, Third Century BCE– First Century CE”, en: A. Mullen y A. Willi (eds.), Latinization, Local Languages, and Literacies in the Roman West, Oxford 2024, 43–83.
Moncunill y Ramírez Sánchez 2021: N. Moncunill y M. Ramírez Sánchez (eds.), Aprender la escritura, olvidar la escritura: Nuevas perspectivas sobre la historia de la escritura en el Occidente romano, Vitoria 2021.
Mullen 2021: A. Mullen, “Socio-literacy: an interdisciplinary approach to understanding literacy in the Roman North-West”, en: N. Moncunill y M. Ramírez Sánchez (eds.), Aprender la escritura, olvidar la escritura: Nuevas perspectivas sobre la historia de la escritura en el Occidente romano, Vitoria 2021, 357–380.
Mullen 2024a: A. Mullen, “Exploring Life and Languages in the Roman Western Provinces: Methods, Materials, and Mindsets”, en: A. Mullen y A. Willi (eds.), Latinization, Local Languages, and Literacies in the Roman West, Oxford 2024, 1–42.
Mullen 2024b: A. Mullen, “Languages and literacies in Roman Britain”, en: A. Mullen y A. Willi (eds.), Latinization, Local Languages, and Literacies in the Roman West, Oxford 2024, 355–401.
Mullen 2024c: A. Mullen, “The Languages and Epigraphies of Iron Age and Roman Gaul”, en: A. Mullen y A. Willi (eds.), Latinization, Local Languages, and Literacies in the Roman West, Oxford 2024, 151–204.
Mullen y Willi 2024: A. Mullen y A. Willi, Latinization, Local Languages, and Literacies in the Roman West, Oxford 2024.
Olesti Vila 2019: O. Olesti Vila, “Los instrumentos de escritura y registro en el noreste peninsular en época republicana (s. II–I a. n. e.) como indicadores de romanización”, Palaeohispanica 19, 2019, 55–79.
Olesti Vila 2021: O. Olesti Vila, “Writing instruments for managing provincial resources during the Roman occupation of northeast Hispania (2nd and 1st c. BCE)”, Journal of Roman Archaeology 34.1, 2021, 98–129.
Orduña 2019: E. Orduña, “The Vasco-Iberian theory”, en A. G. Sinner y J. Velaza (eds.), Palaeohispanic Languages and Epigraphies, Oxford 2019, 219–239.
Ramírez Sánchez 2022: M. Ramírez Sánchez, “Veinte años de Paleohispanística. Análisis bibliométrico e historiográfico de Palaeohispanica (2001–2021) en el contexto de las revistas españolas sobre lenguas y culturas de la Hispania antigua”, Palaeohispanica 22, 2022, 15–46.
Ruiz Darasse 2024: C. Ruiz Darasse, Écrire à Ensérune. Étude des inscriptions retrouvées sur l’oppidum (IVe a. C. – Ier p. C.), Montpellier 2024.
Ruiz Darasse 2025: C. Ruiz Darasse (ed.), Contacts linguistiques et graphiques dans les inscriptions en langue gauloise, Bordeaux 2025.
Simón Cornago 2021: I. Simón Cornago, “Arqueología de la escritura: los soportes de las escrituras paleohispánicas”, Palaeohispanica 21, 2021, 589–632.
Untermann 1977: J. Untermann, “Zwei Colloquien über Sprachen und Schriften im vorrömischen Hispanien”, Madrider Mitteilungen 18, 1977, 355–359.
Vallejo Ruiz 2005: J. M. Vallejo Ruiz, Antroponimia indígena de la Lusitania romana, Vitoria 2005.
Willi 2024: A. Willi, “Writing Latin in Germania Superior”, en: A. Mullen y A. Willi (eds.), Latinization, Local Languages, and Literacies in the Roman West, Oxford 2024, 273–320.
Wodtko 2013: D. Wodtko, “Models of language spread and language development in prehistoric Europe”, en: J. T. Koch y B. W. Cunliffe (eds.), Celtic from the West 2: Rethinking the Bronze Age and the Arrival of Indo-European in Atlantic Europe, Oxford 2013, 185–206.
Woolf 1996: G. D. Woolf, “Monumental writing and the expansion of Roman society”, JRS 86,
1996, 22–39.
Zeidler 2011: J. Zeidler, “Review of Cunliffe, B. W. and Koch, J. T. (eds.), Celtic from the West: Alternative Perspectives from Archaeology, Genetics, Language, and Literature, Oxford/ Oakville, CT 2010”, BMCR 2011.09.57.
Downloads
Published
Issue
Section
License
Copyright (c) 2025 Alex Mullen

This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License.
Professional standards and ethical policies
a) Palaeohispanica’s editorial board
Details concerning the journal’s internal organization can be found at this website.
b) Authors’ responsibilities
As an implicit condition for publishing in Palaeohispanica, authors are expected to adhere to all the ethical and professional principles that are shared across all research fields and academic publications. By submitting a contribution for peer review, potential authors guarantee that their work is original, that it constitutes a significant contribution to its research field and has not been published elsewhere.
All submitted manuscripts ought to contain bibliographic references at the end of the paper as well as an indication of how the research that culminated in the article was funded.
Likewise, authors must agree to incorporate any relevant changes that peer reviewers suggest as well as to include any recommendations that the editorial committee includes in the manuscript’s proofs at the end of the editorial process.
The journal expects its authors, reviewers, editors and staff members to all conduct themselves professionally by treating others with respect and civility. Should any sort of untoward situation arise, such as (self) plagiarism, conflicts of interest or aggressive behaviour on the author’s part, the following actions will be taken:
- Plagiarism and the republication of articles
Plagiarism is defined as the reproduction of a text or other materials found in different publications without the original source being adequately cited. Accordingly, material can still be plagiarized even when it has been tweaked or paraphrased. Plagiarism constitutes a serious ethical violation; furthermore, there can be legal ramifications for violating an author’s rights in cases where the reproduced material has been previously published. Authors who want to cite published work must do so by including complete references to the original materials and by including any quotations within quotation marks. Graphs and images can only be reproduced with the express permission of the original author and must include a citation below said image or graphic according to the rules laid out on the journal’s website. If a peer reviewer or the editorial board detects any instance of plagiarism (whether of one’s own or another’s work), the manuscript will automatically be disqualified.
- Conflicts of interest
In most instances an individual who works at the same institution as an author or one of the co-authors is automatically barred from evaluating a potential contribution. The journal’s editors must always be aware of possible conflicts of interest and are required to recuse themselves from any decision-making process, whenever there is even the appearance of a possible conflict of interest.
c) The peer-review process
Palaeohispanica employs peers to evaluate externally all contributions, with this being understood as obtaining the opinion of an established expert over the merits of every potential contribution. In addition to completing the relevant form, reviewers are expected to suggest any pertinent bibliography that was not included in the original version of the manuscript.
Furthermore, the peer-review process is double blind, meaning that both authors’ anonymity as well as the reviewers’ impartiality and independence are guaranteed. Reader reviews will be treated with the utmost confidentiality. As is the case with all respectable research journals, the editors of Palaeohispanicawill not share with a third party the identity of a peer reviewer, the contents of his or her review or any correspondence resulting from the review process. Likewise, reviewers are required to adhere to the same strict standard of confidentiality: neither manuscripts nor the contents of any correspondence between an author and the editors can be shared with a third party without the written and express consent of the journal’s editors.
While strictly speaking authors are not held to the same standards (they can, for instance, solicit advice from co-authors and colleagues as they revise and amend a manuscript in accordance with the recommendations found in a reviewer’s report), the public airing of a reviewer’s report or of the correspondence with the editorial team constitutes untoward behavior. Any author who acts in such a way will automatically forfeit his or her right to the journal’s confidentiality.
- Aggressive behaviour
Should the editorial committee be made aware of any untoward behaviour on the author’s part towards external reviewers, other authors or the journal’s editors/staff, that author’s submission will immediately be withdrawn from the consideration process.
All participants in the publication process, including editors, authors, peer reviewers, and member’s of the journal’s staff are expected to meet basic standards of professional courtesy and to respect the fundamental rules and guidelines concerning the peer-review and publication processes. Under any circumstance, personal attacks and verbal assault (whether expressed orally or through writing) are completely unacceptable. Accordingly, the journal reserves the right to reject the contribution of any author who repeatedly violates these principles or refuses to cooperate with the editors and reviewers during the normal evaluation and publication processes.
d) Editorial ethics
The editorial team at Palaeohispanica will bring an end to any dishonest research practice by submitting every proposal to a careful review process that will begin before the selection of possible peer reviewers. Should anything questionable be detected, an author will be asked to provide relevant explanations and then be told to review his/her text so as to meet the journal’s quality standards. If an author does not make the requested changes, the manuscript will not be submitted for double-blind peer review and, accordingly, will not be published. The editorial board is always available to discuss and debate with authors any misunderstanding that could have given rise to such a situation.
e) Copyright and journal access
Journal content falls under the protection of licence Creative Commons CC BY-NC-SA. Access the all journal content is open and free of charge.
f) Journal archive
Given that the Institución Fernando el Católico is an established and important publishing house, it is extremely unlikely that access to the journal’s contents could be compromised in anyway within the foreseeable future. The contents of Palaeohispanica will be stored in IFC’s servers even if the journal ceases to be published.
g) Ownership and management of the journal
The journal Palaeohispanica is edited and run by the institution «Fernando el Católico», an independent entity of the Excelentísima Diputación de Zaragoza.
Names and email addresses submitted to this journal will only be used for tasks related to the journal and will not be shared with any third party or used for any other purpose.
In accordance with the Regulation UE 2016/679, information gathered by the Institución Fernando el Católico de la Excma. Diputación de Zaragoza (IFC) will be used for carrying out the functions of an academic publication, the handling of claims, appeals, complaints, suggestions, surveys as well as any other activity involved in the management of the journal.
Cubic Factory is in charge of handling said data. They can be contacted at cubic@cubicfactory.com.
Data can be given to public agencies with the relevant competencies and in case of legal obligations.
Those who are interested can exercise their rights of access, correction, suppression, limitation of the use, opposition and portability by contacting ifc@dpz.es.
Users can also go to the Agencia Española de Protección de Datos to make any complaints that they feel is necessary.
User information will be kept during the period in which it is needed to complete the task for which said information was provided in the first place or for the period necessary to comply with any legal obligations. Once a given objective has been completed, personal data that is not part of fulfillment of public service will be blocked until the applicable period has ended.
Ethical and confidentiality policy of Palaeohispanica can be consulted here.
Privacy policy
Names and email addresses submitted to this journal will only be used for tasks related to the journal and will not be shared with any third party or used for any other purpose.
In accordance with the Regulation UE 2016/679, information gathered by the Institución Fernando el Católico de la Excma. Diputación de Zaragoza (IFC) will be used for carrying out the functions of an academic publication, the handling of claims, appeals, complaints, suggestions, surveys as well as any other activity involved in the management of the journal.
Cubic Factory is in charge of handling said data. They can be contacted at cubic@cubicfactory.com.
Data can be given to public agencies with the relevant competencies and in case of legal obligations.
Those who are interested can exercise their rights of access, correction, suppression, limitation of the use, opposition and portabilityby contacting ifc@dpz.es.
Users can also go to the Agencia Española de Protección de Datos to make any complaints that they feel is necessary.
User information will be kept during the period in which it is needed to complete the task for which said information was provided in the first place or for the period necessary to comply with any legal obligations. Once a given objective has been completed, personal data that is not part of fulfillment of public service will be blocked until the applicable period has ended.
The IFC’s privacy and data protection policy can be consulted at https://tiendaifc.dpz.es/Sites/dpz/paginasPersonalizadas/Modelo2/inicio.aspx. It can also be found in the journal’s the top navigation menu: http://ifc.dpz.es/ojs/index.php/palaeohispanica/dpd
Names and email addresses submitted to this journal will only be used for tasks related to the journal and will not be shared with any third party or used for any other purpose.
In accordance with the Regulation UE 2016/679, information gathered by the Institución Fernando el Católico de la Excma. Diputación de Zaragoza (IFC) will be used for carrying out the functions of an academic publication, the handling of claims, appeals, complaints, suggestions, surveys as well as any other activity involved in the management of the journal.
Cubic Factory is in charge of handling said data. They can be contacted at cubic@cubicfactory.com.
Data can be given to public agencies with the relevant competencies and in case of legal obligations.
Those who are interested can exercise their rights of access, correction, suppression, limitation of the use, opposition and portability by contacting ifc@dpz.es.
Users can also go to the Agencia Española de Protección de Datos to make any complaints that they feel is necessary.
User information will be kept during the period in which it is needed to complete the task for which said information was provided in the first place or for the period necessary to comply with any legal obligations. Once a given objective has been completed, personal data that is not part of fulfillment of public service will be blocked until the applicable period has ended.
Ethical and confidentiality policy of Palaeohispanica can be consulted here.